Parenting Styles and Anxiety Sensitivity Essay Example for Free

Parenting Styles and Anxiety Sensitivity Essay Statement of the problem At the end of this study the researches aim to answer these questions: 1. Is there a significant relationship between parenting styles and anxiety sensitivity? 2. Which among the three parenting style has the highest probability of producing anxious children? 3. Which among the demographic factors affect the parenting style of the mothers? Review of Related Literature It has long been proposed that parent-child relationships (particularly a child’s perceptions of these relationships) play an important role in child adjustment and psychological development (Safford et al. , 2007).Since 1966, researchers have conducted a great deal of research evaluating parent child interactions using the prototype of parental patterns developed by Baumrind (1966 1971), i.e., authoritative, authoritarian and permissive. Baumrind (1971) grouped parent’s behavior according to whether they were high or low on parental demandingness and responsiveness. Each of these parenting styles reflected different naturally occurring patterns of parental values, practices and behaviors (Baumrind, 1991). Authoritative parents strive to provide clear, firm direction, but discipline is moderated by warmth and reason (Buri, 1991). Permissive parents are non-controlling, and they use minimal punishment. Authoritarian parents are highly directive, and they value unquestioned obedience. Authoritarian parents are characteristically less warm, they discourage verbal give-and-take, and they use punitive methods to control their childrens behavior (Gfroerer, et al., 2011). It is important then to examine the type of parenting in which the child is exposed to at such a young age because it will have impact on their lives later on. During adolescence, various biological, cognitive, emotional, and social changes take place that affect the parent-child relationship (Lerner et al., 1996). Hence, it is essential to further in some factors that have influenced parenting styles in this particular period of life (Dà ¼zgà ¼n, 1995). Suppose parenting styles play a vital role in the development of anxiety disorders, it then becomes key in understanding how overprotective parenting aggravates the development of the anxiety symptoms (Erozkan, 2012). Given the importance of anxiety sensitivity for understanding emotional problems, it is important to also gain a better understanding of the nature of anxiety sensitivity (Taylor, 1995). Because family is one of the largest environmental factors impacting a child’s life, it is important to understand how a child’s family affects the development of anxiety symptoms in children. Furthermore, since it is a child’s parents who usually create the family environment, it is essential to understand which characteristics of parents or parenting contribute to the development of anxiety (Nanda et al., 2011). Chorpita and Barlow (1998) hypothesized that early life experiences involving excessive parental control can cause an individual to believe that events in one’s life are uncontrollable and unpredictable, which then contributes to the development of anxiety. That is, children who experience excessive parental control may believe that they have no internal control over their lives, since their parents are the ones who control everything; this, in turn, can lead to the development of anxiety. Further, parents with high levels of anxiety sensitivity may intervene more often, as they observe signs of anxiety in their children, judging these symptoms as harmful (Erozkan, 2011). In accordance to this, the aim of this research is to uncover the significant relationships between anxiety sensitivity and parenting styles. In the study conducted by Chambers et al. (2004), it is said that poor parenting style has been associated with anxiety and mood disorders among children. In this study, parenting styles were divided into two dimensions which are care and control. Under the dimension of care, parents are seen as warmth and understanding, while under the dimension of control, parents are seen as over-protective or intrusive. Patients with anxiety disorders were also tested in the study and Chambers et al. (2004) found out that those patients with anxiety disorders perceived poor parenting from both their mothers and fathers, while those who have no anxiety disorders report their parents as having optimal parenting. This suggests that optimal parenting may be considered as a factor in predictive recovery of the children. The study also concluded that paternal and maternal parenting styles have an effect on children. Poor parenting from mothers was associated with having a diagnosis in male participants, while poor parenting from fathers was associated with having a diagnosis in female participants. Parents who scored high in care and high in control were seen as having positive parenting style than parents who scored low in care and either high or low in control. Based on the results of the study, it is evident that parenting styles have an impact when it comes to children’s development of anxiety and or recovery from anxiety. Children who have parental care are more likely to perceive an optimal parenting and less likely to experience anxiety. Children who are already diagnosed with anxiety disorder are more likely to recover if their parents exhibit a positive parenting style. In a different study conducted by Lindhout et al. (2009), child temperament and child-rearing are said to be risk factors in child’s development of anxiety disorders. Parents of children having anxiety disorder exhibit a parenting style which is characterized by over-control and increased criticism. Also, children whose parents show less care or more control are said to be vulnerable to anxiety. The characteristic or temperament of the child may also give rise to the type of parenting style a parent uses and in return, may also strengthen the child’s characteristics. Parenting styles may depend on the characteristic or temperament of the child and at the same time, the characteristic or temperament of the child may also depend on the parenting style of their parents. This suggests that parenting serves as a moderator between temperament and anxiety (Lindhout et al., 2004). Also, children whose parents show less care or more control are said to be vulnerable to anxiety. Similar with the study of Chamber et al. (2004), Lindout et al’s. (2009) study also mentioned that parenting styles add an interesting component to the prevention of anxiety disorders among children. Temperament (shyness) appeared to be strongly related to anxiety levels in early childhood, but parenting style which is high in control showed more contribution to the anxiety that surface in middle childhood or preadolescence, even among children who were not initially anxious (Lindhout et al., 2004). According to the study of Oort et al. (2011), anxiety has several risk factors such as family or peer influences, and factors that are proximal to the individual. This study also considered temperamental characteristics as associated with anxiety. Family factors include parenting styles with high rejection and overprotection, parenting stress, and parental anxiety and depression. In the result of the study, Oort et al. (2011) found out that some of the important risk factors in preadolescence were low self-competence, rejecting and overprotecting parenting, and being a bully-victim. These risk indicators decrease toward age 16-17 years old. The risk factors that remain stable in high levels of anxiety were temperament, parental lifetime internalizing problems, and being a victim of bullying. Based on these result, it can be said that parenting styles contribute to the anxiety level of the children and may not be disregarded. It is important to consider this factor as contributing to anxiety of children so that anxiety may be prevented and parents will be educated on this matter (Lindhout, 2009). In the study conducted by Niditch and Varela (2012), two dimensions of parenting styles were studied which are acceptance/rejection and autonomy-granting/control. Parental control is said to limit the child’s exposure to developmentally appropriate autonomous experiences and self-guided problem solving (Niditch and Varela, 2012). It was also mentioned that controlling parents lead to anxiety by reducing the child’s experience of mastery of challenges in his or her environment. According to the â€Å"transactional and cyclical† nature of the relationship between parental control and child anxiety as mentioned by Niditch and Varela (2012), the parent takes action for the child in order to relieve the child’s distress, which often leads to the child feeling anxious in more situations. Parental rejection on the other hand, parents show criticism, arbitrary blame or punishment, and withholding warmth. Parental rejection teaches children that positive outcomes a re rare and are not the result of their actions, and this often leads to anxiety. It also said that parental rejection has less contribution when it comes to developing anxiety in children than parental control. It is important to consider the developmental stage in studying the effect of parental control on anxiety since parent’s controlling behaviors tend to change or increase through late childhood and decline towards adolescence (Niditch and Varela, 2012). It is also possible that changes in parenting styles affect anxious adolescents differently from non-anxious adolescents. This result manifests because anxious adolescents may perceive normative changes in control parenting style as increasing rejection. In adolescence, rejection is more associated with anxiety than control. Results of the study also revealed that maternal rejection was a predictor of anxiety. As explained by Niditch and Varela (2012), mothers are the nurturing caregivers and they pass on unique importance on maternal emotion socialization to their children, and that disruption to this role may result to reduced sense of emotional competence, which then leads to increased anxiety. Parents play an integral role in a child’s development because it is them who first interacted with the children. According to Ryan and Lynch (1889) â€Å"secure attachment to parents fosters a healthy self-confidence in adolescents as it does in other developmental stages.† Because of this, it is essential to know the possible effects of early parenting in the child’s cognitive, social, and emotional aspects. It is widely assumed that the nature and quality of the interactions between parents and adolescents can contribute to young people’s well-being (Bandura, 1997). Diana Baumrind in 1966 was able to present three primary parenting styles that can be used to categorize the parents’ behaviour towards the children. Later on in 1983, Macoby and Martin presented the fourth parenting style called the neglectful and Lamborns et al. (1991), were able to find supporting empirical results for this. As stated by Karavasilis, Doyle, and Markiewicz, (2003), authoritative parents are highly demanding, highly responsive and the same time grants autonomy. Authoritarian parents are characterized by high demandingness, low responsiveness and low levels of autonomy granting. Parents who are permissive show high levels of responsiveness and autonomy but low level of demandingness. A neglectful parent shows low levels of demandingness, responsiveness and autonomy granting. One important area that has been emphasized as contributing to the development of childhood anxiety is parenting (Chorpita and Barlow, 1998). The parent–child relationship appears to be one contributor to the development and/or maintenance of child social anxiety. A relationship between social anxiety and a parenting style marked by overprotection (or high control) and low warmth has been repeatedly demonstrated in various age groups and within both clinical and developmental areas of psychological study. (Bruch et al. 1989). This suggests that the parenting style practiced by the parents is influential in the development of social anxiety in children. Spokas and Heimberg (2008) said that â€Å"a family environment marked by affective involvement and behavioral control (which is likely related to parental overprotection) predicted one’s sense of control over anxiety symptoms, which then contributed to anxiety.† Traditional models of childhood anxiety sought to explain the development of anxiety in terms of single main effects and focused primarily on the broad parenting dimensions of acceptance versus rejection and psychological granting of autonomy versus psychological control (Rapee, 1997). As stated by Clark and Ladd (2000), parental rejection connotes low levels of parental warmth, approval, and responsiveness. This in turn can weaken the children’s emotions that make him or her sensitive to anxiety that may lead to having anxiety problems. Parental control involves excessive parental regulation of childrens activities and routines, encouragement of childrens dependence on parents, and instruction to children on how to think or feel (Barber, 1996). Theoretical models have hypothesized that when parents are highly controlling in contexts when it is developmentally appropriate for children to act independently (e.g., attending elementary school), children may experience decreased self-efficacy, and thus, increased anxiety (Wood, 2006). Adolescent years are often portrayed as the hardest stage as a teenager, because it is both tense for the parents and the teens. As said by Kopko (2007), teens undergo a number of developmental adjustments together with the changes on becoming an adult. These are related to the biological, cognitive, emotional and social changes as a teen. To be an effective parent, it requires having methodical understanding of these developmental changes. Kopko (2007) stated that the parent’s parenting style gives a healthy outcome for the developmental changes. There are different kinds of parenting styles and different impact that can help parents with their parent-teen relationship and the teens to find smooth ways in the adolescent developmental changes. According to Kopko (2007), Baumrind (1971, 1991) has four patterns of parenting style that was based on the two aspects of parenting behavior which is the parental warmth and control. Parental warmth is how a parent accepts and responses to the child and parental control is how a parent manages the behavior of the child. There are different ways of combining the two aspects of parenting behavior and if so there are four parenting styles that come into view. But in this study the researchers will only have three of the parenting styles of Baumrind; Authoritarian, Authoritative and Permissive. Kopko (2007) explained all the four patterns of parenting style, but the researcher will mainly focus on the other three parenting styles. Authoritative parenting style is a parent that shows warmth but secure towards the child. The parent reassures that the child can be able to do anything or be independent yet should also know ones limitations and control in their decision and actions. A child that has experienced an authoritative parenting style may likely to be socially capable, responsible and independent. Authoritarian parenting style is a parent that shows a little bit of warmth and more on the control towards the child. The parents are strict and controlling, they use a disciplinary style towards their child and they insist that their directions to the child will be followed. A child that has experienced an authoritarian parenting style may likely to be rebellious or dependent. A child that turns out to be rebellious has the tendency to show aggressive behaviors and a child t hat is more passive or submissive is dependent towards the parent. Permissive parenting style is a parent that shows warmth and no control toward the child. The parent is easygoing, understanding and passive and believes that by reciprocation to the wants of the child will show their love. A child that has experienced a permissive parenting style may likely to be self-centered and have no self-control. As stated by Biradar (2006), the youth is a period of time where the maturity in physical and psychological attributes change. The youth is likely to build his or her own identity and to acquire skills for socially responsible behavior. The youth’s change to adulthood can have a smooth process enabled by the presence and guide of securing, nurturing, and understanding parent. If there will be an emotional connection or bonding and communication between the parent and the child it is enough reason that the youth can be emotionally and socially capable, responsible and independent. Taylor (2007) discussed that anxiety sensitivity is the fear of arousal-related sensations, and saying that these sensations have harmful consequences. There are three basic dimensions of anxiety sensitivity; the first dimension is the fear of publicly observable anxiety reactions, the second dimension is the fear of thinking that it is unable to control one’s behavior, and the last dimension is the fear of somatic sensations. Anxiety sensitivity contributes to the intensity of one’s emotional reactions. According to Stein (1999), anxiety sensitivity is the fear of anxiety-related sensations. In the expectancy theory, an individual may become anxious whenever a symptom is experienced by an individual may tend to avoid certain activities, events, and places that will trigger anxiety. Stein (1999) also explained that if an individual has a high level of anxiety sensitivity, it is said to be that the individual is more likely to be a threat or danger if the individual experiences anxiety symptoms. Kashdan et. al. (2008) said that anxiety sensitivity can be a variable risk factor for anxiety problems and anxiety sensitivity is uniquely have a connection to escape and avoidance behavior of an individual.

Parallels Between The Truman Show and Platos Allegory of the Cave Essa

Parallels Between The Truman Show and Plato's Allegory of the Cave The movie, 'The Truman Show' is about a reality television show that has been created to document the life of a man who, adopted at birth by a television network, is tricked into believing that his life, his reality, is normal and the environment that he lives is real. It is set in a town called Seahaven, which is essentially a simulation of the real world similar enough to the outside world that the viewing audience can relate to it. The town is a television studio inside an enormous dome in which the weather, the sun, the sky, and all the actions of the citizens are directed by a team of special effects people. The entire show is directed and produced by the creator of the show, Christof. Truman Burbank, the star of the show, is the only one who doesn't know that he lives in a giant studio and is surrounded by an illusion of reality. The entire world watches Truman's movements twenty four hours a day, seven days a week through the use of thousands of miniature hidden cameras. The Truman Show closely parallels Plato's Allegory of the Cave. Initially, Truman is trapped in his own 'cave'; a film set or fictional island known as Seahaven. Truman?s journey or ascension into the real world and into knowledge is similar to that of Plato?s cave dweller. Truman, much like the prisoners in the cave, would know no difference then what they have been taught or shown to be the real world their whole lives. If T...

The Lottery Comparison of Tradition

Margaret Urquhart Professor Daniels ENC1102 15 March 2013 An Outrageous Tale Standing in line for hours, impatiently waiting for the front doors of our favorite stores to open, to be nearly trampled upon for discounted items, is a tradition we, as Americans, like to call Black Friday. Black Friday is the day following Thanksgiving Day in the United States, often regarded as the beginning of the Christmas shopping season. To get people in the spirit, most major retailers open before the sun comes up and offers promotional sales to kick off the holiday shopping season.Americans consider â€Å"getting in the spirit,† by waking at the crack of dawn to pry items out of other people’s hands while at the same time getting pushed and shoved by crazy amounts of people on the same hunt. We call a tradition; a belief or behavior passed down within a group or society with symbolic meaning or special significance that has origin from the past. Black Friday is the one tradition that I thought was the worst until reading â€Å"The Lottery,† by Shirley Jackson. Jackson uses irony to suggest an underlying evil, hypocrisy, and weakness of human kind.Jackson shows many important lessons about human nature in this short story including barbaric traditions in a supposedly civilized village, the community’s hypocrisy, and how violence and cruelty take place. â€Å"The Lottery† tells the story of an annual tradition in a small village, where the people are close and tradition is paramount. The Lottery is a yearly event in which one person in the town is randomly chosen, by a drawing, to be violently stoned by friends and family.The villagers don’t really know much about the lottery’s origin but try to preserve the tradition nevertheless; they believed that someone had to be sacrificed to insure a good crop. â€Å"Lottery in June, corn be heavy soon,† said Old Man Warner. The villagers allow an outdated tradition to run their liv es and control whether they live or die. The black box symbolizes death; the name of the â€Å"winner† to be stoned is drawn from the box at every lottery, it represents tradition in the fact that it is old and worn.It has been in existence seemingly forever and though there is talk of replacing it, the reader can infer that there will be no such change. The villagers are aware that the sacrifice is inhumane but none want to stand and voice their opinion because they are afraid of how it may affect their lives. â€Å"The lottery† has been practiced in this town for such a long time that it makes tradition so powerful, it’s like a force of nature, and the people of the village can’t imagine rebelling against it.The black box represents tradition in aspects to it being old; the characters mention that they did not want to get rid of the old box because it was made of splinters of the original box. The town is so focused on how things were and how things hav e always been that they cannot see any new or improved ways of living. Nevertheless, the lottery continues simply because there has always been a lottery. In â€Å"The Lottery,† the idea of hypocrisy is seen throughout the story. This theme is evident by the tradition of the lottery itself as well as the characters’ actions.The theme of hypocrisy is often attached to the idea of religion. Mr. Adams questions the traditions of the lottery and Mr. Summers says, â€Å"There’s always been a lottery,† and that it would be â€Å"nothing but trouble. † With these statements I feel that this tradition has been around for such a long time that if they were to get rid of it, in return it would turn the town upside down and the villagers wouldn’t know how to react to not having it. They keep the tradition alive yet they create nothing but trouble in determining who dies. The character Mrs. Hutchinson’s best friend, Mrs.Delacroix, is one of the f irst to casually discuss the lottery and in contrast she is the first to pick up a rock to stone her so called friend. Jackson’s use of such a tradition and these everyday characters demonstrates how hypocritical we are in society and is cautioning readers to questions those ideas set in stone. Shirley Jackson shows us that violence is a part of human nature, and that it can be disguised in many ways. The setting of the story is seemingly civilized and peaceful, while the stoning is a cruel and brutal act. This shows us that horrifying acts of violence can take place anywhere at any time, by ordinary citizens.Violence and cruelty are a major theme because we do not live in a â€Å"perfect† world where nothing bad ever goes wrong; there is violence and cruelty all around us. We see human cruelty in its worst form because there is no excuse for it. Jackson's example illustrates how mankind can become a victim to its own mindless traditions. For example, one child in the story was depicted this way: â€Å"Bobby Martin had already stuffed his pockets full of stones, and the other boys soon followed his example. †(Jackson 194) This quote shows how people are mindless followers just because everyone else is doing it.This strange tale is twisted in ways that show us so much about human nature and the way we are in society. The themes that are unraveled throughout the story are shocking, teaching us about human nature on a different level. People live by the term, â€Å"If everyone else is doing it, then I should too. † This shows how even though the tradition has been going on for so long, no one actually knows when it originated; they only continue it because it’s the tradition of the town. The violence and cruelty that comes into play is brutal in the sense that Mrs.Hutchinson’s friends were the first to stone her and not have any problem with it, which shows the hypocrisy of human beings. The people of the town disguise th e evil tradition of the lottery by following orders without asking any questions. Getting pushed and shoved in line for long hours for an item is a tradition that we should not have in America anymore, but still do because everyone does it. In the same sense, dying is drastically worse than getting pushed and shoved; they can’t stop the tradition of â€Å"The Lottery† because it’s what everyone in town does.

Process Addictions Essays - 2441 Words

A process addiction is being addicted to, or dependent on a certain behaviour; a process. It is an impulsive behaviour that disrupts your life. It is based on behaviour because it’s about the person’s involvement (Ferentzy). It has been said that process addiction has no physical limits, as with a substance abuse problem. Nor is it likely that this behaviour pattern would tap into the reward pattern and motivational system as directly, as certain substances can (Ferentzy). However, regardless of whether they are speaking about a process or a substance addiction, addictions interfere with a person’s ability to truly know themselves, their spirituality, and their world around them (David Capuzzi, 2008, p. 35). Process addictions have†¦show more content†¦37). To explain the meaning of pathological gambling is being unable to resist impulses to gamble, which can lead to severe social and personal consequences (Health, 2010). Similar to most addictions, some warning signs are easy to identify, while others are well hidden. Some signs are secretiveness and excessive time with phone calls and Internet access, unaccountable time away from work or home, unexplained preoccupation, increased debt and worry over finances, and extravagant expenditures. This could lead to problems that are quite significant for everyone (David Capuzzi, 2008, p. 37). Problems with gambling are found in all age groups, income groups, and cultures. People who are experiencing this problem are not necessarily alike, much like the problems that they face. Nor did their problem start just like others, where some problems start suddenly while others develop over a number of years (Staff, 2004, p. 12). The reasons why people gamble vary from person to person. Some people gamble for pure enjoyment, while others are looking for a way to escape from the stressors of life. To determine what gambling is, it is basically whenever you take a chance of losing money or belongings, when it is mostly decided by chance (Staff, 2004, p. 9). There are different ways to gamble such as, casino games, bingo, slot machines, horse betting, internet gambling and many more (Staff, 2004, p. 9). Problem gamblingShow MoreRelatedDrug Addiction And Behavioral Or Process Addictions1666 Words   |  7 Pages There are many different types of addiction that people become dependent on and they are devoted to it. There are 2 main categories of addiction, which are substance-related addiction and behavioral or process addictions. There are 2 main types of addiction, which are physical is when a person s body is reliant on something after a while a person’s body can crave it and then there re psychological addictions which is when someone craves something so that is changing their mood and feelings. 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